Network card
A network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly.
Although other network technologies exist, Ethernet has achieved near-ubiquity since the mid-1990s. Every Ethernet network card has a unique 48-bit serial number called a MAC address, which is stored in ROM carried on the card. Every computer on an Ethernet network must have a card with a unique MAC address. No two cards ever manufactured share the same address. This is accomplished by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), which is responsible for assigning unique MAC addresses to the vendors of network interface controllers.
Whereas network cards used to be expansion cards that plug into a computer bus, the low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most newer computers have a network interface built into the motherboard. These either have Ethernet capabilities integrated into the motherboard chipset, or implemented via a low cost dedicated Ethernet chip, connected through the PCI (or the newer PCI express bus). A separate network card is not required unless multiple interfaces are needed or some other type of network is used. Newer motherboards may even have dual network (Ethernet) interfaces built-in.
The card implements the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a specific physical layer and data link layer standard such as Ethernet or token ring. This provides a base for a full network protocol stack, allowing communication among small groups of computers on the same LAN and large-scale network communications through routable protocols, such as IP.
There are four techniques used to transfer data, the NIC may use one or more of these techniques.
Polling is where the microprocessor examines the status of the peripheral under program control.
Programmed I/O is where the microprocessor alerts the designated peripheral by applying its address to the system's address bus.
Interrupt-driven I/O is where the peripheral alerts the microprocessor that it's ready to transfer data.
DMA is where the intelligent peripheral assumes control of the system bus to access memory directly. This removes load from the CPU but requires a separate processor on the card.
A network card typically has a twisted pair, BNC, or AUI socket where the network cable is connected, and a few LEDs to inform the user of whether the network is active, and whether or not there is data being transmitted on it. The Network Cards are typically available in 10/100/1000 Mbit/s(Mbit/s). This means they can support a transfer rate of 10 or 100 or 1000 Megabits per second.
Whereas network cards used to be expansion cards that plug into a computer bus, the low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most newer computers have a network interface built into the motherboard. These either have Ethernet capabilities integrated into the motherboard chipset, or implemented via a low cost dedicated Ethernet chip, connected through the PCI (or the newer PCI express bus). A separate network card is not required unless multiple interfaces are needed or some other type of network is used. Newer motherboards may even have dual network (Ethernet) interfaces built-in.
The card implements the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a specific physical layer and data link layer standard such as Ethernet or token ring. This provides a base for a full network protocol stack, allowing communication among small groups of computers on the same LAN and large-scale network communications through routable protocols, such as IP.
There are four techniques used to transfer data, the NIC may use one or more of these techniques.
Polling is where the microprocessor examines the status of the peripheral under program control.
Programmed I/O is where the microprocessor alerts the designated peripheral by applying its address to the system's address bus.
Interrupt-driven I/O is where the peripheral alerts the microprocessor that it's ready to transfer data.
DMA is where the intelligent peripheral assumes control of the system bus to access memory directly. This removes load from the CPU but requires a separate processor on the card.
A network card typically has a twisted pair, BNC, or AUI socket where the network cable is connected, and a few LEDs to inform the user of whether the network is active, and whether or not there is data being transmitted on it. The Network Cards are typically available in 10/100/1000 Mbit/s(Mbit/s). This means they can support a transfer rate of 10 or 100 or 1000 Megabits per second.
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation.
The term "repeater" originated with telegraphy and referred to an electromechanical device used to regenerate telegraph signals. Use of the term has continued in telephony and data communications.
In telecommunication, the term repeater has the following standardized meanings:
An analog device that amplifies an input signal regardless of its nature (analog or digital).
A digital device that amplifies, reshapes, retimes, or performs a combination of any of these functions on a digital input signal for retransmission.
See also: Federal Standard 1037C and MIL-STD-188
Because repeaters work with the actual physical signal, and do not attempt to interpret the data being transmitted, they operate on the Physical layer, the first layer of the OSI model.
In telecommunication, the term repeater has the following standardized meanings:
An analog device that amplifies an input signal regardless of its nature (analog or digital).
A digital device that amplifies, reshapes, retimes, or performs a combination of any of these functions on a digital input signal for retransmission.
See also: Federal Standard 1037C and MIL-STD-188
Because repeaters work with the actual physical signal, and do not attempt to interpret the data being transmitted, they operate on the Physical layer, the first layer of the OSI model.
Hubs
Network hub
A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to all the ports of the hub. When the packets are copied, the destination address in the frame does not change to a broadcast address. It does this in a rudimentary way, it simply copies the data to all of the Nodes connected to the hub.
A network hub or concentrator is a device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together, making them act as a single network segment. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model, and the term layer 1 switch is often used interchangeably with hub. The device is thus a form of multiport repeater. Network hubs are also responsible for forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a collision.
Hubs also often come with a BNC and/or AUI connector to allow connection to legacy 10BASE2 or 10BASE5 network segments. The availability of low-priced network switches has largely rendered hubs obsolete but they are still seen in older installations and more specialized applications.
Hubs also often come with a BNC and/or AUI connector to allow connection to legacy 10BASE2 or 10BASE5 network segments. The availability of low-priced network switches has largely rendered hubs obsolete but they are still seen in older installations and more specialized applications.
Bridges
Network bridge
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learns which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast was received.
Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learns which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast was received.
Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.
Bridges come in three basic types:
Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)
Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced by routers.
Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs. , where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced by routers.
Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced by routers.
Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs. , where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced by routers.
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model, and the term layer 2 switch is often used interchangeably with bridge. Bridges are similar to repeaters or network hubs, devices that connect network segments at the physical layer, however a bridge works by using bridging where traffic from one network is managed rather than simply rebroadcast to adjacent network segments. In Ethernet networks, the term "bridge" formally means a device that behaves according to the IEEE 802.1D standard—this is most often referred to as a network switch in marketing literature.
Since bridging takes place at the data link layer of the OSI model, a bridge processes the information from each frame of data it receives. In an Ethernet frame, this provides the MAC address of the frame's source and destination. Bridges use two methods to resolve the network segment that a MAC address belongs to.
Since bridging takes place at the data link layer of the OSI model, a bridge processes the information from each frame of data it receives. In an Ethernet frame, this provides the MAC address of the frame's source and destination. Bridges use two methods to resolve the network segment that a MAC address belongs to.
Transparent bridging – This method uses a forwarding database to send frames across network segments. The forwarding database is initially empty and entries in the database are built as the bridge receives frames. If an address entry is not found in the forwarding database, the frame is rebroadcast to all ports of the bridge, forwarding the frame to all segments except the source address. By means of these broadcast frames, the destination network will respond and a route will be created. Along with recording the network segment to which a particular frame is to be sent, bridges may also record a bandwidth metric to avoid looping when multiple paths are available. Devices that have this transparent bridging functionality are also known as adaptive bridges.
Source route bridging – With source route bridging two frame types are used in order to find the route to the destination network segment. Single-Route (SR) frames comprise most of the network traffic and have set destinations, while All-Route(AR) frames are used to find routes. Bridges send AR frames by broadcasting on all network branches; each step of the followed route is registered by the bridge performing it. Each frame has a maximum hop count, which is determined to be greater than the diameter of the network graph, and is decremented by each bridge. Frames are dropped when this hop count reaches zero, to avoid indefinite looping of AR frames. The first AR frame which reaches its destination is considered to have followed the best route, and the route can be used for subsequent SR frames; the other AR frames are discarded. This method of locating a destination network can allow for indirect load balancing among multiple bridges connecting two networks. The more a bridge is loaded, the less likely it is to take part in the route finding process for a new destination as it will be slow to forward packets. A new AR packet will find a different route over a less busy path if one exists. This method is very different from transparent bridge usage, where redundant bridges will be inactivated; however, more overhead is introduced to find routes, and space is wasted to store them in frames. A switch with a faster backplane can be just as good for performance, if not for fault tolerance.
Advantages of network bridges
Self configuring
Primitive bridges are often inexpensive
Reduce size of collision domain by microsegmentation in non switched networks
Transparent to protocols above the MAC layer
Allows the introduction of management - performance information and access control
LANs interconnected are separate and physical constraints such as number of stations, repeaters and segment length don't apply
Disadvantages of network bridges
Primitive bridges are often inexpensive
Reduce size of collision domain by microsegmentation in non switched networks
Transparent to protocols above the MAC layer
Allows the introduction of management - performance information and access control
LANs interconnected are separate and physical constraints such as number of stations, repeaters and segment length don't apply
Disadvantages of network bridges
Does not limit the scope of broadcasts
Does not scale to extremely large networks
Buffering introduces store and forward delays - on average traffic destined for bridge will be related to the number of stations on the rest of the LAN
Bridging of different MAC protocols introduces errors
Because bridges do more than repeaters by viewing MAC addresses, the extra processing makes them slower than repeaters
Bridges are more expensive than repeaters
Does not scale to extremely large networks
Buffering introduces store and forward delays - on average traffic destined for bridge will be related to the number of stations on the rest of the LAN
Bridging of different MAC protocols introduces errors
Because bridges do more than repeaters by viewing MAC addresses, the extra processing makes them slower than repeaters
Bridges are more expensive than repeaters
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